{"doi":"10.3390/nu14030667","title":"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Is Associated with Differences in Human Milk Hormone and Cytokine Concentrations in a Fully Breastfeeding United States Cohort","abstract":"It is unclear whether gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) alters breast milk composition. We prospectively examined associations of GDM status with concentrations of six potentially bioactive elements (glucose, insulin, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), leptin, and adiponectin) in human milk. These were measured at both 1 and 3 months postpartum in 189 fully breastfeeding women. Mixed-effects linear regression assessed GDM status-related differences in these milk bioactives, adjusting for demographics, maternal factors, and diet. At 1 and 3 months postpartum, milk CRP was higher (1.46 ± 0.31 ng/mL; p < 0.001 and 1.69 ± 0.31 ng/mL; p < 0.001) in women with GDM than in women without GDM, whereas milk glucose (−5.23 ± 2.22 mg/dL; p = 0.02 and −5.70 ± 2.22; p = 0.01) and milk insulin (−0.38 ± 0.17 μIU/mL; p = 0.03 and −0.53 ± 0.17; p = 0.003) were lower in women with GDM. These significant associations remained similar after additional adjustment for maternal weight status and its changes. No difference was found for milk IL-6, leptin, and adiponectin. There was no evidence of association between these milk bioactive compounds and 1 h non-fasting oral glucose challenge serum glucose in the women without GDM. This prospective study provides evidence that potentially bioactive elements of human milk composition are altered in women with GDM.","journal":"Nutrients","year":2022,"id":255084,"datarank":0.0,"base_score":0.0,"endowment":0.0,"self_citation_contribution":0.0,"citation_network_contribution":0.0,"self_endowment_contribution":0.0,"citer_contribution":0.0,"corpus_percentile":null,"corpus_rank":null,"citation_count":20,"citer_count":0,"citers_with_citation_signal":0,"citers_with_endowment":0,"datacite_reuse_total":0,"is_dataset":false,"is_dataset_confidence":0.9429,"is_data_producer":false,"deposit_databanks":null,"is_oa":true,"file_count":0,"downloads":0,"has_version_chain":false,"published_date":"2022-01-01","fair_score":null,"fair_percentile":null,"algorithm_id":"datarank_citation_only_1hop_v6","ranking_scope":"data_only","authors":[{"id":390402,"name":"Emily Nagel","orcid":"0000-0002-5792-009X","position":1,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":385071,"name":"Harmeet Kharoud","orcid":"0000-0002-6503-2156","position":2,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":266333,"name":"Kelsey E. Johnson","orcid":"0000-0001-9180-6381","position":3,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":903361,"name":"Tipper Gallagher","orcid":null,"position":4,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":735709,"name":"Katy Duncan","orcid":null,"position":5,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":360566,"name":"Elyse O. Kharbanda","orcid":"0000-0003-1806-6502","position":6,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":71615,"name":"David A. Fields","orcid":"0000-0002-6845-1196","position":7,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":695369,"name":"Cheryl A. Gale","orcid":"0000-0002-0185-8645","position":8,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":882697,"name":"Katherine Jacobs","orcid":null,"position":9,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":65159,"name":"DAVID R. JACOBS","orcid":"0000-0002-7232-0543","position":10,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":55292,"name":"Ellen W. Demerath","orcid":"0000-0002-4585-4064","position":11,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":871633,"name":"Yuni Choi","orcid":"0000-0003-0926-5331","position":0,"is_corresponding":true}],"reference_count":63,"raw_metadata":null,"created_at":"2026-07-19T00:25:12.987829Z","pmid":"35277026","pmcid":null,"fwci":null,"citation_percentile":null,"influential_citations":0,"oa_status":null,"license":null,"views":0,"total_file_size_bytes":0,"version_count":0,"fair_f":null,"fair_a":null,"fair_i":null,"fair_r":null,"fair_zscore":null,"fair_rationale":null,"fair_model":null,"fair_agent_version":null,"fair_fulltext_source":null,"fair_has_llm":null,"fair_computed_at":null,"clinical_trials":[],"software_tools":[],"db_accessions":[],"linked_datasets":[],"topics":[]}