{"doi":"10.1371/journal.pone.0259823","title":"A cross-sectional investigation of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and associated risk factors in children and adolescents in the United States","abstract":"BACKGROUND: Pediatric SARS-CoV-2 data remain limited and seropositivity rates in children were reported as <1% early in the pandemic. Seroepidemiologic evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 in children in a major metropolitan region of the US was performed. METHODS: Children and adolescents ≤19 years were enrolled in a cross-sectional, observational study of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence from July-October 2020 in Northern Virginia, US. Demographic, health, and COVID-19 exposure information was collected, and blood analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein total antibody. Risk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity were analyzed. Orthogonal antibody testing was performed, and samples were evaluated for responses to different antigens. RESULTS: In 1038 children, the anti-SARS-CoV-2 total antibody positivity rate was 8.5%. After multivariate logistic regression, significant risk factors included Hispanic ethnicity, public or absent insurance, a history of COVID-19 symptoms, exposure to person with COVID-19, a household member positive for SARS-CoV-2 and multi-family or apartment dwelling without a private entrance. 66% of seropositive children had no symptoms of COVID-19. Secondary analysis included orthogonal antibody testing with assays for 1) a receptor binding domain specific antigen and 2) a nucleocapsid specific antigen had concordance rates of 80.5% and 79.3% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: A much higher burden of SARS-CoV-2 infection, as determined by seropositivity, was found in children than previously reported; this was also higher compared to adults in the same region at a similar time. Contrary to prior reports, we determined children shoulder a significant burden of COVID-19 infection. The role of children's disease transmission must be considered in COVID-19 mitigation strategies including vaccination.","journal":"PLoS ONE","year":2021,"id":166974,"datarank":1.4844562306918596,"base_score":3.5263605246161616,"endowment":3.5263605246161616,"self_citation_contribution":0.5289540786924243,"citation_network_contribution":0.9555021519994353,"self_endowment_contribution":0.5289540786924243,"citer_contribution":0.9555021519994353,"corpus_percentile":85.998298135685,"corpus_rank":1811,"citation_count":33,"citer_count":23,"citers_with_citation_signal":22,"citers_with_endowment":22,"datacite_reuse_total":0,"is_dataset":true,"is_dataset_confidence":0.5136,"is_data_producer":false,"deposit_databanks":null,"is_oa":true,"file_count":0,"downloads":0,"has_version_chain":false,"published_date":"2021-01-01","fair_score":22.9167,"fair_percentile":40.53806175481504,"algorithm_id":"datarank_citation_only_1hop_v6","ranking_scope":"data_only","authors":[{"id":694360,"name":"Erica Christian","orcid":null,"position":1,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694361,"name":"Brett Hunter","orcid":null,"position":2,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694362,"name":"Jasdeep Sayal","orcid":null,"position":3,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":518870,"name":"Jiayang Sun","orcid":"0000-0002-0870-7014","position":4,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":693603,"name":"Scott A. Bruce","orcid":"0000-0002-7904-4211","position":5,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694363,"name":"Stephanie Garofalo","orcid":null,"position":6,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694364,"name":"Matthew Southerland","orcid":null,"position":7,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694365,"name":"Svetlana Ho","orcid":null,"position":8,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":315560,"name":"Shira Levy","orcid":"0009-0005-8240-925X","position":9,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694366,"name":"Christopher Defillipi","orcid":null,"position":10,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694367,"name":"Lilian Peake","orcid":null,"position":11,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694368,"name":"Frederick Place","orcid":null,"position":12,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":315565,"name":"Suchitra K. Hourigan","orcid":"0000-0003-2656-5694","position":13,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":694359,"name":"Rebecca Levorson","orcid":null,"position":0,"is_corresponding":true}],"reference_count":30,"raw_metadata":null,"created_at":"2026-07-18T23:45:54.042727Z","pmid":"34748615","pmcid":"PMC8575286","fwci":null,"citation_percentile":null,"influential_citations":0,"oa_status":null,"license":null,"views":0,"total_file_size_bytes":0,"version_count":0,"fair_f":22.2222,"fair_a":56.25,"fair_i":0.0,"fair_r":37.5,"fair_zscore":-0.4565,"fair_rationale":{"fair_score":22.92,"has_llm":true,"taxonomy_version":"fair_taxonomy_v5","dimensions":{"F":{"name":"Findable","score":22.22,"criteria":[{"key":"f_dataset_pid","label":"Persistent identifier for the data","kind":"llm","weight":2.0,"fraction":0.0,"verdict":"no","evidence":null,"grounded":false,"rationale":"No persistent identifier (DOI, Handle, ARK, repository accession) is given for the dataset itself.","anchors":["RDA-F1-01D — FAIR Data Maturity Model: 'Data is identified by a persistent identifier' (priorit","RDA-F1-02D — FAIR Data Maturity Model: 'Data is identified by a globally unique identifier'","FsF-F1-02D — F-UJI/FAIRsFAIR: 'Data is assigned a persistent identifier'"],"scored":true,"signal":null},{"key":"f_repository_named","label":"Named repository","kind":"llm","weight":2.0,"fraction":0.0,"verdict":"no","evidence":null,"grounded":false,"rationale":"No repository is named as the holder of the data; the data are said to be within the paper and supporting files. 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[majority verdict 'partial' (3/5 passes agreed)]","anchors":["NIH DMS Plan Element 4 (NOT-OD-21-014) — Data Preservation, Access, and Associated Timelines","NSTC Desirable Characteristics (2022), Organizational Infrastructure: 'Retention Policy'","RDA-A2-01M — 'Metadata is guaranteed to remain available after data is no longer available'"],"scored":false,"signal":null}]},"I":{"name":"Interoperable","score":0.0,"criteria":[{"key":"i_open_nonproprietary_format","label":"Open file format","kind":"llm","weight":1.0,"fraction":0.0,"verdict":"no","evidence":null,"grounded":false,"rationale":"No file format for the released data is named anywhere in the text. 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A bare URL is not persistent: it is the single most common cause of a dead data link five years after publication. For clinical / human-subjects data, deposit in dbGaP or the European Genome-phenome Archive (EGA).","anchors":["yes","partial","no"],"verdict":"no","current":0.0,"evidence":null,"why":"No persistent identifier (DOI, Handle, ARK, repository accession) is given for the dataset itself.","gain":16.67,"priority":"essential","scored":true},{"key":"f_repository_named","dimension":"F","label":"Named repository","action":"Deposit the data in a repository registered in re3data/FAIRsharing (a domain repository such as GEO, SRA, dbGaP, PRIDE, or a generalist such as Zenodo, Dryad, Dataverse) and name it explicitly in the paper. A lab website is not an archive: it has no retention commitment and no accession. 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[majority verdict 'no' (3/5 passes agreed)]","gain":16.67,"priority":"essential","scored":true},{"key":"f_dataset_cited","dimension":"F","label":"Dataset formally cited","action":"Cite the dataset in the reference list like a publication — creator, year, title, repository, DOI/accession — and cite it in-text where it is used. Only a reference- list entry is machine-readable to Crossref/DataCite, and only a citation lets the data earn credit. 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A name is not a link: it cannot be resolved, versioned, or followed by a machine.","anchors":["yes","partial","no"],"verdict":"no","current":0.0,"evidence":null,"why":"No identifier (accession, DOI, RRID) for an external resource used or referenced by the study is provided.","gain":0.0,"priority":"useful","scored":false},{"key":"a_timeline_retention","dimension":"A","label":"Availability timing & retention","action":"State when the data become available AND how long they will be retained — cite the repository's preservation policy. NIH DMS Element 4 asks for both; most papers give neither.","anchors":["yes","partial","no"],"verdict":"partial","current":0.5,"evidence":"Data is contained within the paper and Supporting Information files.","why":"The statement indicates data are available now (on publication) but does not specify how long they persist. 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For clinical / human-subjects data, deposit in dbGaP or the European Genome-phenome Archive (EGA).","Attach a standard, machine-readable open licence to the deposit — CC0 or CC BY, which is what Horizon Europe and most funders expect — and print the licence identifier in the paper. 'Free to use' is not a licence: it grants nothing a reuser's institution can rely on.","Cite the dataset in the reference list like a publication — creator, year, title, repository, DOI/accession — and cite it in-text where it is used. Only a reference- list entry is machine-readable to Crossref/DataCite, and only a citation lets the data earn credit. Cite the clinical / human-subjects repository accession (e.g. from dbGaP or the European Genome-phenome Archive (EGA)) in the reference list.","Release the data in an open, community-standard format (CSV/TSV, JSON, HDF5, NetCDF, FASTQ, VCF, NIfTI…) instead of — or alongside — any proprietary or instrument-native format, and name the format in the paper. A dataset that needs a €2,000 licence to open is not reusable."],"model":"deepseek/deepseek-v4-flash","agent_version":"fair_agent_v8","fulltext_source":"epmc_xml"},"fair_model":"deepseek/deepseek-v4-flash","fair_agent_version":"fair_agent_v8","fair_fulltext_source":"epmc_xml","fair_has_llm":true,"fair_computed_at":"2026-07-20T11:32:13.421851Z","clinical_trials":[],"software_tools":[],"db_accessions":[],"linked_datasets":[],"topics":[]}