{"doi":"10.1128/aem.04042-15","title":"Thermal Inactivation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Artificially Contaminated Milk by Direct Steam Injection","abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT</jats:title>\n          <jats:p>\n            The efficiency of direct steam injection (DSI) at 105°C for 3 s to inactivate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Mycobacterium avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in milk at a pilot-plant scale was investigated. Milk samples were artificially contaminated with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and also with cow fecal material naturally infected with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            . We also tested milk artificially contaminated with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Mycobacterium smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            as a candidate surrogate to compare thermal inactivation between\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            and\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            . Following the DSI process, no viable\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            or\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            was recovered using culture methods for both strains. For pure\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            cultures, a minimum reduction of 5.6 log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            was achieved with DSI, and a minimum reduction of 5.7 log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            was found with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            . The minimum log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            reduction for wild-type\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            naturally present in feces was 3.3. In addition, 44 dairy and nondairy powdered infant formula (PIF) ingredients used during the manufacturing process of PIF were tested for an alternate source for\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and were found to be negative by quantitative PCR (qPCR). In conclusion, the results obtained from this study indicate that a &gt;7-fold-log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            reduction of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in milk can be achieved with the applied DSI process.\n          </jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            <jats:bold>IMPORTANCE</jats:bold>\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is widespread in dairy herds in many countries.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is the causative agent of Johne's disease in cattle, and infected animals can directly or indirectly (i.e., fecal contamination) contaminate milk. Despite much research and debate, there is no conclusive evidence that\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is a zoonotic bacterium, i.e., one that causes disease in humans. The presence of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            or its DNA has been reported in dairy products, including pasteurized milk, cheese, and infant formula. In light of this, it is appropriate to evaluate existing mitigation measures to inactivate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in dairy products. The work conducted in this study describes the efficacy of direct steam injection, a thermal process commonly used in the dairy industry, to eliminate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and a surrogate bacterium in milk, thus ensuring the absence of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in dairy products subject to these process conditions.\n          </jats:p>","journal":"Applied and Environmental Microbiology","year":2016,"id":617506,"datarank":0.594676765248429,"base_score":2.4849066497880004,"endowment":2.4849066497880004,"self_citation_contribution":0.37273599746820013,"citation_network_contribution":0.22194076778022892,"self_endowment_contribution":0.37273599746820013,"citer_contribution":0.22194076778022892,"corpus_percentile":null,"corpus_rank":null,"citation_count":11,"citer_count":9,"citers_with_citation_signal":8,"citers_with_endowment":8,"datacite_reuse_total":0,"is_dataset":false,"is_dataset_confidence":null,"is_data_producer":false,"deposit_databanks":null,"is_oa":false,"file_count":0,"downloads":0,"has_version_chain":false,"published_date":null,"fair_score":null,"fair_percentile":null,"algorithm_id":"datarank_citation_only_1hop_v6","ranking_scope":"data_only","authors":[{"id":1592538,"name":"Sophie Butot","orcid":null,"position":1,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":1592540,"name":"Balamurugan Jagadeesan","orcid":null,"position":2,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":1592541,"name":"Douwe Bakker","orcid":null,"position":3,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":1592543,"name":"John Donaghy","orcid":null,"position":4,"is_corresponding":false},{"id":1592537,"name":"Mats Peterz","orcid":null,"position":0,"is_corresponding":false}],"reference_count":0,"raw_metadata":{"has_enrichment":true,"resolved":true,"title":"Thermal Inactivation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Artificially Contaminated Milk by Direct Steam Injection","abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT</jats:title>\n          <jats:p>\n            The efficiency of direct steam injection (DSI) at 105°C for 3 s to inactivate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Mycobacterium avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in milk at a pilot-plant scale was investigated. Milk samples were artificially contaminated with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and also with cow fecal material naturally infected with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            . We also tested milk artificially contaminated with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">Mycobacterium smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            as a candidate surrogate to compare thermal inactivation between\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            and\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            . Following the DSI process, no viable\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            or\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            was recovered using culture methods for both strains. For pure\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            cultures, a minimum reduction of 5.6 log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            was achieved with DSI, and a minimum reduction of 5.7 log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            was found with\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. smegmatis</jats:named-content>\n            . The minimum log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            reduction for wild-type\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            naturally present in feces was 3.3. In addition, 44 dairy and nondairy powdered infant formula (PIF) ingredients used during the manufacturing process of PIF were tested for an alternate source for\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and were found to be negative by quantitative PCR (qPCR). In conclusion, the results obtained from this study indicate that a &gt;7-fold-log\n            <jats:sub>10</jats:sub>\n            reduction of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in milk can be achieved with the applied DSI process.\n          </jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            <jats:bold>IMPORTANCE</jats:bold>\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is widespread in dairy herds in many countries.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is the causative agent of Johne's disease in cattle, and infected animals can directly or indirectly (i.e., fecal contamination) contaminate milk. Despite much research and debate, there is no conclusive evidence that\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            is a zoonotic bacterium, i.e., one that causes disease in humans. The presence of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            or its DNA has been reported in dairy products, including pasteurized milk, cheese, and infant formula. In light of this, it is appropriate to evaluate existing mitigation measures to inactivate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in dairy products. The work conducted in this study describes the efficacy of direct steam injection, a thermal process commonly used in the dairy industry, to eliminate\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            and a surrogate bacterium in milk, thus ensuring the absence of\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">M. avium</jats:named-content>\n            subsp.\n            <jats:named-content content-type=\"genus-species\">paratuberculosis</jats:named-content>\n            in dairy products subject to these process conditions.\n          </jats:p>","is_dataset_classified":null,"base_score":2.4849066497880004,"endowment":2.4849066497880004,"datacite_reuse_total":0,"file_count":0,"downloads":0,"views":0,"has_version_chain":false,"is_dataset":false,"is_oa":false,"pmid":"26944840","pmcid":"PMC4836428","openalex_id":"https://openalex.org/W2298099726","authors":[],"funders":[],"total_grants":0,"fwci":0.9424,"citation_percentile":0.76431128,"influential_citations":0,"citation_trend":[{"year":2017,"count":3},{"year":2019,"count":1},{"year":2020,"count":3},{"year":2021,"count":2},{"year":2023,"count":1},{"year":2025,"count":1}],"oa_status":"bronze","license":"https://journals.asm.org/non-commercial-tdm-license","oa_locations":[{"url":"https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/82/9/2800.full.pdf","host_type":"journal"},{"url":"https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/82/9/2800.full.pdf","host_type":"publisher"},{"url":"https://journals.asm.org/doi/pdf/10.1128/AEM.04042-15","host_type":"publisher"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.04042-15","host_type":"journal"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26944840","host_type":"repository"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/4836428","host_type":"repository"}],"fields_of_study":["Mycobacterium research and diagnosis","Veterinary medicine and infectious diseases","Diphtheria, Corynebacterium, and Tetanus","Animals","Cattle","Cattle Diseases","Female","Food Contamination","Food Handling","Food Industry","Microbial Viability","Milk","Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis","Paratuberculosis","Pasteurization","Pilot Projects","Steam"],"mesh_terms":["Animals","Cattle","Cattle Diseases","Female","Food Contamination","Food Handling","Milk","Paratuberculosis","Pilot Projects","Steam","Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis","Food Industry","Microbial Viability","Pasteurization"],"keywords":["Paratuberculosis","Mycobacterium smegmatis","Mycobacterium","Biology","Microbiology","Feces","Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis","Dairy cattle","Pasteurization","Bacteria","Food science","Medicine","Tuberculosis","Animal science"],"sdg_mappings":[],"linked_datasets":[],"clinical_trials":[],"software_tools":[],"database_accessions":[],"source":"live","citation_network_status":"fetched"},"created_at":"2026-08-03T01:53:23.300296Z","pmid":null,"pmcid":null,"fwci":null,"citation_percentile":null,"influential_citations":0,"oa_status":null,"license":null,"views":0,"total_file_size_bytes":0,"version_count":0,"fair_f":null,"fair_a":null,"fair_i":null,"fair_r":null,"fair_zscore":null,"fair_rationale":null,"fair_model":null,"fair_agent_version":null,"fair_fulltext_source":null,"fair_has_llm":null,"fair_computed_at":null,"clinical_trials":[],"software_tools":[],"db_accessions":[],"linked_datasets":[],"topics":[]}